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| - | ===== Ancient History ===== | ||
| - | {{ copan_ruins_honduras.jpg|Copan ruins, Honduras. From http://www.earthoria.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/12/copan_ruins_honduras.jpg | ||
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| - | The first settlers in Honduras arrived by about 10,000 B.C., and are hypothesized to have been hunters and gatherers, traveling through the region on their way to South America. Because of its position at the center of the Americas, Honduras was a crossroads for indigenous cultures during pre-Columbian times. At some point between 3000 and 1000 B.C., the region was populated by migrants from the north and south, possibly the ancestors of today's Pech and Tawahka from South America and today's Tolupán from the Sioux of North America. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | + | For extensive information about the history of Honduras, [[History of Honduras|click here]]. |
| - | Around the time of Christ, several indigenous groups from Mexico and Guatemala migrated to Honduras including the Toltec-speaking Chorotega and the Nahuatl-speaking Pipil. Around 100 A.D. the ancestors of the Maya crossed the Sierra Espíritu Santo from Guatemala into the valley of Copán, conquering its inhabitants. Over the next three centuries these new rulers consolidated their control and by the 5th century had begun construction of the city of Copán. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
| - | The Maya ruled over the city of Copán from 426 to 822 A.D. At its height, approximately 24,000 people are thought to have lived in and around the city of Copán which was the Mayan center for the arts, astronomy, and science. Around 900 A.D., the Mayan civilizations in the Yucatán, Guatemala, and Honduras abruptly collapsed, although Mayan-speaking people still live in the valley of Copán to this day. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
| - | ===== Conquest and Colonization ===== | ||
| - | In 1502, when Columbus arrived, Honduras was a complex mosaic of tribes and chiefdoms with vague borders, trading and warring among one another. Western and south-central Honduras was dominated by the Lenca, composed of several subtribes including the Potón, Guaquí, Cares, Chatos, Dules, Paracas, Guajiquíros, and Yaras. Is it not clear which languages were spoken by these subtribes. These tribes consisted of hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
| - | Other groups composed the ethnic makeup of the country at the time of conquest. The Aztecs maintained trading outposts throughout Honduras during this time, and the Tolupán occupied central and north-central Honduras. Farther east, in present day Olancho and Mosquitia was occupied by Pech and Tawahka. These tribes survived by hunting, fishing, and limited agriculture. Settlements were small and temporary as groups moved often for fresh game and soil for planting. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
| - | The first incursion of Spanish explorers to Honduras came with Cristóbal Colón (Christopher Colombus)in July, 1502. Over the next 20 years, Spaniards made a few scouting trips to Honduras and in 1522-1523 Gil González Dávila led an expedition up the Pacific coast from Panama to the Golfo de Fonseca. During the next couple of years, many Spanish expeditions to Honduras were led by soldiers looking for glory and wealth, specifically the gold from the Honduran mountains that the Aztecs had told Mexican conqueror Hernán Cortés about. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
| - | In 1526, after fighting between various factions of Spanish conquerors had created a turbulent course of conquest, the Spanish crown sent Diego López de Salcedo to ensure direct control over the new colony. In October, 1526, he landed at the first Spanish settlement in Honduras, Trujillo, and took office as its first governor. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| - | The 15 years during which López de Salcedo was governor were chaotic and catastrophic for the indigenous people. However, frequent infighting and rebellion by native peoples prevented the Spaniards from extending their control across the country. In 1536, mass rebellion broke out across most of western and central Honduras led by the Lenca warrior Lempira. Thousands of Lenca and allied tribes took up arms against the Spaniards and kept the colony in a precarious position until 1539 when Lempira was assassinated by the Spaniards. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| - | Victory over the Lenca united the Spanish conquistadors and eliminated further rebellion from the native people. New towns of Gracias a Dios, Comayagua, San Pedro Sula, Choluteca, and Tencoa were established in the late 1530's and the Spaniards extended their control throughout the region. During the colonial era, gold and silver proved to be the main stimulus behind expansion and survival of the new settlements. During the early colonial era, the province was divided into two sections: Higueras, comprised of present day western and central Honduras, and Honduras proper, comprised of Trujillo, the Mosquitia, Olancho, Tegucigalpa,and the Golfo de Fonseca. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| - | Soon after the conquest, the indigenous population significantly declined due to constant fighting and European plagues. Before 1492, an estimated 500,000-800,000 native people lived in Honduras, and after 1541, per colonial reports, only 8,000 remained. Spanish conquerors used the indigenous as their laborers. Because of the significant decline in the indigenous population and the rapid depletion of gold and silver by the end of the 16th century, Honduras quickly became Spain's poorest colony with administrators who were eager to leave at the first opportunity. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| - | Spain's control over Honduras was through //encomiendas//, a method in which Spaniards received awards of land and the right to use the indigenous people as laborers in exchange for religious instruction. But because of the difficulties of farming and mining, the technological boom of the colonial era was relatively short lived and Honduras did not experience significant economic development during this time. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| - | ===== Independence ===== | ||
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| - | {{ honduran_independence_coat_of_arms_smaller.png|Honduran coat of arms. From http://www.go2-paradise.com/page%20design%20elements/Honduras/Coat_of_arms_of_Honduras_svg.png}} | ||
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| - | On September, 15 1821, after the collapse of the Spanish empire, Honduras, along with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala jointly declared independence from Spain in the government palace of Guatemala. Disputes over loyalty followed, and by 1822 Honduras declared loyalty to Iturbide, the new emperor of Mexico. A year later when the empire collapsed, Central American nations (including Honduras) joined together to form a separate federation from Mexico. After 16 years of infighting, the United Provinces of Central America disbanded and Honduras declared itself an independent nation on November 15, 1838. The first of many constitutions was enacted in January, 1839. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| - | The next century was marked by instability within the Honduran government, exploitation of natural resources by foreign investors, and abuses of power by the British and American governments, the military, and private citizens. In 1956 a group of military officers organized a successful coup d'état to overthrow an unpopular government. This marked the beginning of military influence on the country's politics, a defining characteristic of Honduran government for the next four decades. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| - | Following the victory of the Sandinista revolution in neighboring Nicaragua in 1979 and the inauguration of U.S. president Ronald Reagan in 1981, Honduras became a base for the U.S. financed and directed counterrevolution. During this period, the Honduran government imprisoned, tortured, killed, or "disappeared" labor activists, peasant leaders, priests, and other opponents. Due to discontent with these atrocities, the commander of the Honduran military, General Gustavo Álvarez Martínez was exiled, but the military remained in control behind the scenes. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| - | In 1982 a new constitution reducing the presidential term from six years to four was implemented; however, corruption continued to mark the presidencies during the next twenty years. In 2005, Manuel Zelaya Rosales of the Liberal party was elected as president of Honduras. He has since aligned himself with the leftist movement in Latin America. In 2008, Zelaya signed a treaty for the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas (a trade alternative to free trade agreements with the United States) along with Venezuela, Bolivia, Cuba, Nicaragua, and Dominica. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| - | In June 2009, a military coup removed Zelaya from power after he was perceived by many as attempting to modify the constitution in order to remain in power beyond his presidential term. The president of the Honduran Congress, Roberto Micheletti has since stepped into power. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| The nation's most dynamic economic sector is the //maquila// (a tax-free export factory) industry of San Pedro Sula and the north coast. Since the passage of the Puerto Cortés Free Zone Law in 1976 and further legal modifications in 1998 extending free zones in Honduras, approximately 180 //maquila// factories, mainly clothing producers have opened. //Maquila// factories comprise a substantial portion of Honduran exports, increasing from US$96 million in 1994 to US$510 million in 1999 to US$800 million in 2004. By 2007, //maquilas// employed 130,000 workers; mainly women. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | The nation's most dynamic economic sector is the //maquila// (a tax-free export factory) industry of San Pedro Sula and the north coast. Since the passage of the Puerto Cortés Free Zone Law in 1976 and further legal modifications in 1998 extending free zones in Honduras, approximately 180 //maquila// factories, mainly clothing producers have opened. //Maquila// factories comprise a substantial portion of Honduran exports, increasing from US$96 million in 1994 to US$510 million in 1999 to US$800 million in 2004. By 2007, //maquilas// employed 130,000 workers; mainly women. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) | ||
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| A major contributor to the inability of Honduras's government to stimulate growth and spend more on social programs is a massive amount of debt, inherited from generations of irresponsible former governments. During the 1990's, Honduras's debt was between US$3 billion and US$4 billion. At the end of 1999 the country's debt was approximately US$4.6 billion, not including hurricane relief loans. Even before Hurricane Mitch struck, Honduras was being considered by the creditor nations of Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, Germany, Holland, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States, and the World Bank to be included under the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, which "aims to forgive large portions of basically unpayable debt owed by poor countries to the World Bank and the IMF" (Humphrey & Robertson; 2009, p.480). By 2005, Honduras had arrived at the HIPC label and the debt was reduced to US$1.2 billion in 2006. The debt was reduced again in 2007 by $1 billion to US$1.8 billion. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) ((Makdissi, P. & Wodon, Q. (2004). Migration, poverty, and housing in Honduras. Estudios de Economia, 31 (1), 5-20.)) | A major contributor to the inability of Honduras's government to stimulate growth and spend more on social programs is a massive amount of debt, inherited from generations of irresponsible former governments. During the 1990's, Honduras's debt was between US$3 billion and US$4 billion. At the end of 1999 the country's debt was approximately US$4.6 billion, not including hurricane relief loans. Even before Hurricane Mitch struck, Honduras was being considered by the creditor nations of Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, Germany, Holland, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States, and the World Bank to be included under the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, which "aims to forgive large portions of basically unpayable debt owed by poor countries to the World Bank and the IMF" (Humphrey & Robertson; 2009, p.480). By 2005, Honduras had arrived at the HIPC label and the debt was reduced to US$1.2 billion in 2006. The debt was reduced again in 2007 by $1 billion to US$1.8 billion. ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492.)) ((Makdissi, P. & Wodon, Q. (2004). Migration, poverty, and housing in Honduras. Estudios de Economia, 31 (1), 5-20.)) | ||
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| + | ====== Immigration ====== | ||
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| + | "Although approximately 80,000 Hondurans try to reach the US annually, only 25 percent succeed. To reach the United States they must undergo a dangerous journey across Guatemala and Mexico, a process to date under-researched by social sciences. As new undocumented migrant streams continue to expand within global economies, scholars and practitioners who work on their behalf should understand the pre-migration values and expectations because they shape the way migrants adjust and develop new cultural patters in the receiving countries" (Makdissi & Wodon, 2004; p.187).((Makdissi, P. & Wodon, Q. (2004). Migration, poverty, and housing in Honduras. Estudios de Economia, 31 (1), 5-20.)) | ||
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| + | Honduras is one of the poorest nations in the southern hemisphere, with more than half of its population living below the poverty line. Many families send a member of their family with the highest wage-earning potential to the United States for them to send remittances back home to support the family. Annually, 1 million undocumented migrants join the approximately 10 million undocumented laborers already working the United States. Although this undocumented labor force is depicted by the United States as unwanted and law-breaking, many employers in the US help perpetuate it by seeking out and using undocumented workers. ((Sladkova, J. (2007). Expectations and motivations of Hondurans migrating to the United States.// Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 17,// 187-202.)) | ||
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| + | Migrants from Honduras are aware of the labor demand north of the US-Mexico border and risk their lives through countless dangers during the crossing including "suffering of dehydration or hypothermia in desert areas, getting lost or losing one's children, being robbed, raped, apprehended by border patrol officials, or even killed by gangs, border bandits, or //coyotes// (human smugglers)" (Makdissi & Wodon, 2004; p.189). ((Makdissi, P. & Wodon, Q. (2004). Migration, poverty, and housing in Honduras. Estudios de Economia, 31 (1), 5-20.)) | ||
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| + | ===== Motivations for Migration ===== | ||
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| + | According to Sladkova (2007)((Sladkova, J. (2007). Expectations and motivations of Hondurans migrating to the United States. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 187-202.)), some motivations behind Honduran migration include but are not limited to: | ||
| + | * Labor | ||
| + | * Politics and unstable governments | ||
| + | * Self-development | ||
| + | * Aspirations for children | ||
| + | * Pursuit of studies | ||
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| + | ===== Expectations of the United States ===== | ||
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| + | While some migrants express a perception of the US having a better economy with a large Hispanic population and many educational and work opportunities, many migrants are aware of the hardships that undocumented immigrants may face. Many migrants from Honduras only expect to stay for 2-5 years until they can make enough money to return to Honduras. Makdissi and Wodon (2004)((Makdissi, P. & Wodon, Q. (2004). Migration, poverty, and housing in Honduras. Estudios de Economia, 31 (1), 5-20.)) cite some of the difficulties that undocumented immigrants may face including: | ||
| + | * Limited freedom of movement due to fear of detention and deportation | ||
| + | * Discrimination against Latino immigrants | ||
| + | * Loss of native language | ||
| + | * Possible decline in social status | ||
| + | * Discriminatory labor practices for undocumented workers | ||
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| + | ===== U.S. Communities with High Percentages of People of Honduran Ancestry ===== | ||
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| + | Since the 1960s, Hondurans have primarily migrated to the U.S. to Miami, New York City, and Los Angeles. In the 2000 census, 217,569 people in the U.S. claimed Honduran ancestry. The top 10 communities in the U.S. with the highest percentage of residents who claim Honduran ancestry in 2000 included ((http://www.epodunk.com/ancestry/Honduran.html)): | ||
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| + | - Wallace, North Carolina 10.80% | ||
| + | - Rose Hill, North Carolina 5.86% | ||
| + | - Chelsea, Massachusetts 4.51% | ||
| + | - Newton, Texas 4.23% | ||
| + | - Gray Court, South Carolina 3.72% | ||
| + | - Morristown, New Jersey 3.44% | ||
| + | - Miami, Florida 3.34% | ||
| + | - New Brunswick, New Jersey 2.99% | ||
| + | - New York, New York 2.65% | ||
| + | - Hempstead, New York 2.56% | ||
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| + | ===== People of Honduran Ancestry in Oregon ===== | ||
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| + | According to the NCSL ((http://www.ncsl.org/Default.aspx?TabId=13146)), between 1990 and 2000, Oregon saw a 144% increase in persons of Hispanic origin (i.e. Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican, Costa Rican, Guatemalan, Honduran, Nicaraguan, Panamanian, Salvadoran, Argentinean, Bolivian, Chilean, Colombian, Ecuadorian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, and/or Venezuelan origin). | ||
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| + | Specific information about the number of people of Honduran ancestry in Portland is not readily available; however, according to the National Conference of State Legislatures ((http://www.ncsl.org/Default.aspx?TabId=13146)), the Portland-Vancouver area is one of the top 10 metropolitan areas in resettling new immigrants. | ||
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| ====== The People ====== | ====== The People ====== | ||
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| - | ===== Language ===== | + | |
| + | ====== Language ====== | ||
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| ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492)) ((http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_American_Spanish)) | ((Humphrey, Chris & Robertson, Amy (2009). Moon Handbooks: Honduras. Avalon Travel Publishing: Berkeley, CA. 462-492)) ((http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_American_Spanish)) | ||
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| - | ==== Lexicon ==== | ||
| - | Most of the vocabulary used in Honduran Spanish is common to other countries in Latin America; however, as with other countries in Central America, Honduran Spanish has its own unique vocabulary. The following are a few examples of words unique to Honduran Spanish: | + | |
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| + | ===== Lexicon ===== | ||
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| + | Most of the vocabulary used in Honduran Spanish is common to [[standard_latin_american_spanish|Latin American Spanish]] spoken in other countries; however, as with other countries in Central America, Honduran Spanish has its own unique vocabulary. The following are a few examples of words unique to Honduran Spanish: | ||
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| - | ==== Phonetics and Phonology ==== | + | |
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| + | ===== Phonetics and Phonology ===== | ||
| Honduran Spanish uses a faster, softer cadence than typical [[standard_latin_american_spanish|Latin American Spanish]], similar to the Spanish spoken in Nicaragua and the Caribbean. Words are not as strongly enunciated and are often cut off at the end, with one word running into another. | Honduran Spanish uses a faster, softer cadence than typical [[standard_latin_american_spanish|Latin American Spanish]], similar to the Spanish spoken in Nicaragua and the Caribbean. Words are not as strongly enunciated and are often cut off at the end, with one word running into another. | ||
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| * /s/ at the end of a syllable or before a consonant is pronounced like h (silent) | * /s/ at the end of a syllable or before a consonant is pronounced like h (silent) | ||
| - | * j (pronounced /x/) is aspirated, it is as soft as /h/ in English) | + | * the letter j (pronounced as the velar fricative /x/) is aspirated, it is as soft as /h/ in English) |
| * the phonemes /s/ and /θ/ are both pronounced as /s/ | * the phonemes /s/ and /θ/ are both pronounced as /s/ | ||
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| - | ==== Pronouns and Verb Conjugation ==== | + | |
| + | ===== Pronouns and Verb Conjugation ===== | ||
| Two distinctions mark the differences between the Spanish spoken in Honduras and general [[standard_latin_american_spanish|Latin American Spanish]]. | Two distinctions mark the differences between the Spanish spoken in Honduras and general [[standard_latin_american_spanish|Latin American Spanish]]. | ||
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| - | ====== Immigration ====== | ||
| - | "Although approximately 80,000 Hondurans try to reach the US annually, only 25 percent succeed. To reach the United States they must undergo a dangerous journey across Guatemala and Mexico, a process to date under-researched by social sciences. As new undocumented migrant streams continue to expand within global economies, scholars and practitioners who work on their behalf should understand the pre-migration values and expectations because they shape the way migrants adjust and develop new cultural patters in the receiving countries" (Makdissi & Wodon, 2004; p.187).((Makdissi, P. & Wodon, Q. (2004). Migration, poverty, and housing in Honduras. Estudios de Economia, 31 (1), 5-20.)) | ||
| - | Honduras is one of the poorest nations in the southern hemisphere, with more than half of its population living below the poverty line. Many families send a member of their family with the highest wage-earning potential to the United States for them to send remittances back home to support the family. Annually, 1 million undocumented migrants join the approximately 10 million undocumented laborers already working the United States. Although this undocumented labor force is depicted by the United States as unwanted and law-breaking, many employers in the US help perpetuate it by seeking out and using undocumented workers. ((Sladkova, J. (2007). Expectations and motivations of Hondurans migrating to the United States.// Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 17,// 187-202.)) | ||
| - | Migrants from Honduras are aware of the labor demand north of the US-Mexico border and risk their lives through countless dangers during the crossing including "suffering of dehydration or hypothermia in desert areas, getting lost or losing one's children, being robbed, raped, apprehended by border patrol officials, or even killed by gangs, border bandits, or //coyotes// (human smugglers)" (Makdissi & Wodon, 2004; p.189). ((Makdissi, P. & Wodon, Q. (2004). Migration, poverty, and housing in Honduras. Estudios de Economia, 31 (1), 5-20.)) | ||
| - | ===== Motivations for Migration ===== | ||
| - | According to Sladkova (2007)((Sladkova, J. (2007). Expectations and motivations of Hondurans migrating to the United States. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 187-202.)), some motivations behind Honduran migration include but are not limited to: | ||
| - | * Labor | ||
| - | * Politics and unstable governments | ||
| - | * Self-development | ||
| - | * Aspirations for children | ||
| - | * Pursuit of studies | ||
| - | ===== Expectations of the United States ===== | ||
| - | While some migrants express a perception of the US having a better economy with a large Hispanic population and many educational and work opportunities, many migrants are aware of the hardships that undocumented immigrants may face. Many migrants from Honduras only expect to stay for 2-5 years until they can make enough money to return to Honduras. Makdissi and Wodon (2004)((Makdissi, P. & Wodon, Q. (2004). Migration, poverty, and housing in Honduras. Estudios de Economia, 31 (1), 5-20.)) cite some of the difficulties that undocumented immigrants may face including: | ||
| - | * Limited freedom of movement due to fear of detention and deportation | ||
| - | * Discrimination against Latino immigrants | ||
| - | * Loss of native language | ||
| - | * Possible decline in social status | ||
| - | * Discriminatory labor practices for undocumented workers | ||
| - | ===== U.S. Communities with High Percentages of People of Honduran Ancestry ===== | ||
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| - | Since the 1960s, Hondurans have primarily migrated to the U.S. to Miami, New York City, and Los Angeles. In the 2000 census, 217,569 people in the U.S. claimed Honduran ancestry. The top 10 communities in the U.S. with the highest percentage of residents who claim Honduran ancestry in 2000 included ((http://www.epodunk.com/ancestry/Honduran.html)): | ||
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| - | - Wallace, North Carolina 10.80% | ||
| - | - Rose Hill, North Carolina 5.86% | ||
| - | - Chelsea, Massachusetts 4.51% | ||
| - | - Newton, Texas 4.23% | ||
| - | - Gray Court, South Carolina 3.72% | ||
| - | - Morristown, New Jersey 3.44% | ||
| - | - Miami, Florida 3.34% | ||
| - | - New Brunswick, New Jersey 2.99% | ||
| - | - New York, New York 2.65% | ||
| - | - Hempstead, New York 2.56% | ||
| ====== Culture and Education ====== | ====== Culture and Education ====== | ||
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| //Student contributor to this page: Leila Raphael; Winter, 2010.// | //Student contributor to this page: Leila Raphael; Winter, 2010.// | ||
| - | ~~DISCUSSION:on~~ | + | ~~DISCUSSION:off~~ |