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| ====== SPECIAL EDUCATION in other cultures: CHINA, INDIA, MEXICO, and RUSSIA ====== | ====== SPECIAL EDUCATION in other cultures: CHINA, INDIA, MEXICO, and RUSSIA ====== | ||
| - | This page provides information about special education in China, India, Mexico, and Russia. For each of the countries, history, availability & eligibility, service delivery model, and future directions are discussed. Please reference the Table of Contents (to the right) for easy navigation among countries and topics. Additional information may be accessed for some of the countries through the main (home) page by searching "by specific language" or "by geographic region." | + | This page provides information about special education in China, India, Mexico, and Russia. It may be helpful for SLPs working with groups from these countries to understand some assumptions that members of different cultures may bring regarding treatment of their child with a disability. |
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| + | For each of the countries, history, availability & eligibility, service delivery model, and future directions are discussed. Please reference the Table of Contents (to the right) for easy navigation among countries and topics. Additional information may be accessed for some of the countries through the main (home) page by searching "by specific language" or "by geographic region," or through the links in green throughout the page. | ||
| ====== Special Education in CHINA ====== | ====== Special Education in CHINA ====== | ||
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| ===== History ===== | ===== History ===== | ||
| ** Prevalence and distribution of disability (geographic/socioeconomic/etiological):**\\ | ** Prevalence and distribution of disability (geographic/socioeconomic/etiological):**\\ | ||
| - | * As of 1987, 5% (5.164 million) of [[China]]'s population (1.1 billion) was found to have a disability. Disability categories included visually impaired, hearing and speech impaired, physically disabled, mentally retarded, psychiatrically disabled, or disabled in various ways. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in china: a sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) | + | * As of 1987, 5% (5.164 million) of [[China]]'s population (1.1 billion) was found to have a disability. Disability categories included visually impaired, hearing and speech impaired, physically disabled, mentally retarded, psychiatrically disabled, or disabled in various ways. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China: A sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) |
| - | * A similar survey of the US in 1987 found 14% of its population having physical or mental impairment that interfered with daily activities. This difference may be explained by a variation in the definition of disability among the two countries as well as instruments that were used to diagnose disabilities. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in china: a sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) | + | * A similar survey of the US in 1987 found 14% of its population having physical or mental impairment that interfered with daily activities. This difference may be explained by a variation in the definition of disability among the two countries as well as instruments that were used to diagnose disabilities. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China: A sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) |
| - | * China is traditionally an agriculturally based society. The majority of its people live in rural areas where the community depends on physical labor and use of simple tools. A person can lead a normal life without the need to read, write, or communicate with strangers, thus people with learning disabilities and autism escape diagnoses if they are able to lead a typical agricultural life. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in china: a sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) | + | * China is traditionally an agriculturally based society. The majority of people in China live in rural areas where the community depends on physical labor and use of simple tools. A person can lead a normal life without the need to read, write, or communicate with strangers, thus people with learning disabilities and autism escape diagnoses if they are able to lead a typical agricultural life. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China: A sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) |
| ** Attitudes towards disability:**\\ | ** Attitudes towards disability:**\\ | ||
| - | * Societal attitudes toward education for individuals with disabilities have been influenced by Mao Zedong, the founding father of the Communist party in China. Zedong instilled the belief that all children should perform at high levels in similar ways which proved to neglect individual differences. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in china: a sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) | + | * Societal attitudes toward education for individuals with disabilities have been influenced by Mao Zedong, the founding father of the Communist party in China. Zedong instilled the belief that all children should perform at high levels in similar ways which proved to neglect individual differences. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China: A sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) |
| - | * The only disabilities that were acknowledged were in children with obvious sensory impairments such as vision or hearing deficits. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in china: a sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) | + | * The only disabilities that have been acknowledged are in children with obvious sensory impairments such as vision or hearing deficits. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China: A sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) |
| ** Special Education History and Policy Timeline:**\\ | ** Special Education History and Policy Timeline:**\\ | ||
| - | * China’s development of special education was highly influenced by the Soviet Union. In segregated residential schools, Communist education was emphasized, and methods stressing reconciliation of disabilities- sensory training, and defect orthopedics- were used. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in china: a sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) | + | * China’s development of special education was highly influenced by the Soviet Union. In segregated residential schools, Communist education was emphasized, and methods stressing reconciliation of disabilities- sensory training, and defect orthopedics- were used. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China: A sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) |
| - | * In 1986, the Compulsory Education of the People’s Republic of China was passed. This was a civil rights law promising a free education for children with disabilities defined as blind, deaf, mute, mentally retarded, and other handicapped children. ((Yang, H., & Wang, H. (1994). Special education in china. The Journal of Special Education, 28 no. 1, 93-105.)) | + | * In 1986, the Compulsory Education of the People’s Republic of China was passed. This was a civil rights law promising a free education for children with disabilities defined as blind, deaf, mute, mentally retarded, and other handicapped children. ((Yang, H., & Wang, H. (1994). Special education in China. The Journal of Special Education, 28 no. 1, 93-105.)) |
| - | * The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Disabled persons was passed in 1990. This is another civil rights law ensuring that people with disabilities should have equal rights, including the right to receive their education along with other peers. ((Yang, H., & Wang, H. (1994). Special education in china. The Journal of Special Education, 28 no. 1, 93-105.)) | + | * The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Disabled persons was passed in 1990. This is another civil rights law ensuring that people with disabilities should have equal rights, including the right to receive their education along with other peers. ((Yang, H., & Wang, H. (1994). Special education in China. The Journal of Special Education, 28 no. 1, 93-105.)) |
| * The movement to integrate children with disabilities into classes with peers was coined Learning in Regular Classrooms (LRC) and was influenced by Western culture. However, LRC is different from the mainstreaming movements in the United States. | * The movement to integrate children with disabilities into classes with peers was coined Learning in Regular Classrooms (LRC) and was influenced by Western culture. However, LRC is different from the mainstreaming movements in the United States. | ||
| - | * The LRC model has a stronger focus on incompetence as opposed to the strength based model in the US. | + | * The LRC model has a stronger focus on incompetence as opposed to the strength-based model that is being used with more frequency in the US. |
| * The emphasis of LRC is to provide education for children with disabilities, whereas the goal of mainstreaming in America is to grant children the right to be equally educated. | * The emphasis of LRC is to provide education for children with disabilities, whereas the goal of mainstreaming in America is to grant children the right to be equally educated. | ||
| - | * There are still children with severe disabilities in China who do not have the opportunity to attend school at all. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in china: a sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) | + | * There are still children with severe disabilities in China who do not have the opportunity to attend school at all. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China: A sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) |
| + | * //**Implications:** Parents may be unfamiliar with the rights of their child to be maximally participating in mainstream classrooms.// | ||
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| ** Where are Services Available?:**\\ | ** Where are Services Available?:**\\ | ||
| - | * Despite the law to ensure children with disabilities have the right to receive education along with typical peers, there are still about 66% of children receiving services in special education schools. ((Education in the people's republic of China. (2010). Retrieved March 07, 2010 from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/education_in_the_people%27s_republic_of_china.)) | + | * Despite the law to ensure children with disabilities have the right to receive education along with typical peers, there are still about 66% of children receiving services in special education schools. ((Education in the People's Republic of China. (2010). Retrieved March 07, 2010 from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/education_in_the_people%27s_republic_of_china.)) |
| * Some parents have taken the solution into their own hands and founded private organizations treating children with learning disabilities including autism and mental disabilities. These schools focus on tapping into the child’s or adult’s strength in areas like art, agriculture, or even typing. ((Hallett, S. (2006). One eye on China: Learning disability in the People's Republic. Retrieved March 01, 2010 from BBC Features: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ouch/features/one-eye-on-china-learning_disability.shtml.)) | * Some parents have taken the solution into their own hands and founded private organizations treating children with learning disabilities including autism and mental disabilities. These schools focus on tapping into the child’s or adult’s strength in areas like art, agriculture, or even typing. ((Hallett, S. (2006). One eye on China: Learning disability in the People's Republic. Retrieved March 01, 2010 from BBC Features: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ouch/features/one-eye-on-china-learning_disability.shtml.)) | ||
| - | * In 2007, about 410,000 physically disadvantaged students were studying in more than 1,540 special institutes. ((Education in the people's republic of China. (2010). Retrieved March 07, 2010 from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/education_in_the_people%27s_republic_of_china.)) | + | * In 2007, about 410,000 physically disadvantaged students were studying in more than 1,540 special institutes. ((Education in the People's Republic of China. (2010). Retrieved March 07, 2010 from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/education_in_the_people%27s_republic_of_china.)) |
| ** To Whom are Services Available?**\\ | ** To Whom are Services Available?**\\ | ||
| - | * The historical definition of disability in China has included the categories of visual impairment, hearing and speech impairment, physical disability, mental retardation, and psychiatric disability. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in china: a sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) | + | * The historical definition of disability in China has included the categories of visual impairment, hearing and speech impairment, physical disability, mental retardation, and psychiatric disability. ((Deng, M., Poon-Mcbrayer, K., & Farnsworth, E. (2001). The development of special education in China: A sociocultural review. Remedial and Special Education, 22, no.5, 288-298.)) |
| - | * After much questioning, Chinese officials have admitted that some students have reading challenges in the early grades. These kids are unable to read Chinese characters but rely on pinyins instead. Pinyins incorporate the Latin alphabet to teach the pronunciation of Chinese characters. Most children use the pinyin as a tool to learn the character, but some continue to rely solely on the pinyin. ((Terry, B. (2000). State of eduaction and special education in China. Retrieved March 01, 2010 from Parent Pals Special Education Resources: http://www.parentpals.com/gossamer/pages/detailed/891.html.)) | + | * After much questioning, Chinese officials have admitted that some students have reading challenges in the early grades. These kids are unable to read Chinese characters but rely on pinyins instead. Pinyins incorporate the Latin alphabet to teach the pronunciation of Chinese characters. Most children use the pinyin as a tool to learn the character, but some continue to rely solely on the pinyin. ((Terry, B. (2000). State of education and special education in China. Retrieved March 01, 2010 from Parent Pals Special Education Resources: http://www.parentpals.com/gossamer/pages/detailed/891.html.)) |
| - | * As of 2000, there were no special services provided for the learning disabled in mainstream schools including children with ADHD. ((Terry, B. (2000). State of eduaction and special education in China. Retrieved March 01, 2010 from Parent Pals Special Education Resources: http://www.parentpals.com/gossamer/pages/detailed/891.html.)) | + | * As of 2000, there were no special services provided for the learning disabled in mainstream schools including children with ADHD. ((Terry, B. (2000). State of education and special education in China. Retrieved March 01, 2010 from Parent Pals Special Education Resources: http://www.parentpals.com/gossamer/pages/detailed/891.html.)) |
| - | * Early childhood education programs for preschool age children with disabilities gained momentum in the early 1990s. The programs still mainly focused on children with hearing or visual deficits. ((Yang, H., & Wang, H. (1994). Special education in china. The Journal of Special Education, 28 no. 1, 93-105.)) | + | * Early childhood education programs for preschool age children with disabilities gained momentum in the early 1990s. The programs still mainly focused on children with hearing or visual deficits. ((Yang, H., & Wang, H. (1994). Special education in China. The Journal of Special Education, 28 no. 1, 93-105.)) |
| ** How are Students Identified?:**\\ | ** How are Students Identified?:**\\ | ||
| - | * Typically, regular classroom teachers refer students with learning disabilities, behavior problems, or other special needs for special education. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * Typically, regular classroom teachers refer students with learning disabilities, behavior problems, or other special needs for special education. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| - | * Special teachers receive permission from local education authorities to determine the child’s eligibility by using standardized tests. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * Special teachers receive permission from local education authorities to determine the child’s eligibility by using standardized tests. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| - | * Standardized tests are translated versions of Western tests such as Draw-a-Person test, Denver Developmental Screening Test, and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale IV. These tests do not account for cultural differences. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * Standardized tests are translated versions of Western tests such as Draw-a-Person test, Denver Developmental Screening Test, and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale IV. These tests do not account for cultural differences. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| - | * Standardized tests are mostly available in larger cities. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * Standardized tests are mostly available in larger cities. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| * The above factors lead to misdiagnoses of children for special services. | * The above factors lead to misdiagnoses of children for special services. | ||
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| ** Who Provides Services? How are they prepared?:**\\ | ** Who Provides Services? How are they prepared?:**\\ | ||
| * As of 2003, there were only 30,349 special education teachers in China with only half of those receiving special training. None had doctorates with only 48 holding masters degrees. ((Feng, Y. (2008) Teacher motivation in special education in China. Paper presented to: British Educational Research Association (BERA) Annual Conference 2008, Edinburgh, 3 - 6 September 2008.)) | * As of 2003, there were only 30,349 special education teachers in China with only half of those receiving special training. None had doctorates with only 48 holding masters degrees. ((Feng, Y. (2008) Teacher motivation in special education in China. Paper presented to: British Educational Research Association (BERA) Annual Conference 2008, Edinburgh, 3 - 6 September 2008.)) | ||
| - | * There is one institute in Nanjing, Jiangsu province which specifically trains special educators. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * There is one institute in Nanjing, Jiangsu province which specifically trains special educators. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| - | * Although there are several special education departments within universities that train special educators, the number of graduates is limited. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * Although there are several special education departments within universities that train special educators, the number of graduates is limited. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| - | * Special educators face lower payment and higher - intensity working hours than educators in normal schools. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * Special educators face lower payment and higher-intensity working hours than educators in normal schools. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| ** Parent Involvement:**\\ | ** Parent Involvement:**\\ | ||
| - | * Parents view educators as authorities to be respected and that they, as parents, are inferior. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * Parents view educators as authorities to be respected and that they, as parents, are inferior. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| - | * Parents typically feel afraid to communicate as equals with educators about their child’s medical history, happenings at home, or family priorities and needs. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * Parents typically feel afraid to communicate as equals with educators about their child’s medical history, happenings at home, or family priorities and needs. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| - | * Parents often feel shameful about their child’s disabilities. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in china. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) | + | * Parents often feel shameful about their child’s disabilities. ((Pang, Y., & Richey, D. (2006). The development of special education in China. International Journal of Special Education, 21 No. 1, 77-86.)) |
| + | *//**Implications:** Parents may not be forthcoming in sharing their concerns about their child.// | ||
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| For specific information on autism spectrum disorders in China, [[autism_spectrum_disorders_and_culture|click here.]] | For specific information on autism spectrum disorders in China, [[autism_spectrum_disorders_and_culture|click here.]] | ||
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| ====== Special Education in INDIA ====== | ====== Special Education in INDIA ====== | ||
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| ** Prevalence and distribution of disability (geographic / socioeconomic /etiological):**\\ | ** Prevalence and distribution of disability (geographic / socioeconomic /etiological):**\\ | ||
| - | * 74% of the general population and 75% of people with disabilities are known to live in rural areas of [[India]], though underidentification is likely. Poverty and associated malnutrition and lack of medical care, may result in some physical disabilities. ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * 74% of the general population and 75% of people with disabilities are known to live in rural areas of [[India]], though under-identification is likely. Poverty and associated malnutrition and lack of medical care, may result in some physical disabilities. ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| ** Attitudes towards disability:**\\ | ** Attitudes towards disability:**\\ | ||
| - | * Parents may view a child’s disability as the child’s own fault ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * Parents may view a child’s disability as the child’s own fault ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| - | * There is a social stigma associated with learning disabilities ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * There is a social stigma associated with learning disabilities ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| - | * Implications: Because of the stigma towards mental disabilities, parents may be reluctant to admit that their child has difficulties or to accept a diagnosis for their child. | + | * //**Implications:** Because of the stigma towards mental disabilities, parents may be reluctant to admit that their child has difficulties or to accept a diagnosis for their child.// |
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| * India's educational system is complex, multi-tiered, and multi-lingual. Schooling is competitive and driven by performance. People with adequate financial resources have many options available for their children’s schooling. | * India's educational system is complex, multi-tiered, and multi-lingual. Schooling is competitive and driven by performance. People with adequate financial resources have many options available for their children’s schooling. | ||
| - | * A national curriculum is in place. It has a heavy focus on theory and rote memorization ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * A national curriculum is in place. It has a heavy focus on theory and rote memorization ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| ** Special Education History and Policy Timeline:**\\ | ** Special Education History and Policy Timeline:**\\ | ||
| - | * Historically, parents have mostly been responsible for caring for children with disabilities, with the help of some private institutions and volunteer organizations. ((Vakil, Welton, Khanna)) In the last two decades, the government has begun to be more involved in special education. | + | * Historically, parents have mostly been responsible for caring for children with disabilities, with the help of some private institutions and volunteer organizations. ((Vakil, S., Welton. E., Khanna, R. (2002). Special education in India: The success of a model program. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, no.5, 46-49.)) In the last two decades, the government has begun to be more involved in special education. |
| * 1987: The Integrated Education for Disabled project is launched. | * 1987: The Integrated Education for Disabled project is launched. | ||
| - | * 1992: The government instituted its first piece of legislation pertaining to children with disabilities, the Rehabilitation Council of India Act. The impact of this act was limited to mandating minimum educational standards for special education teachers. . ((Vakil, Welton, Khanna)) | + | * 1992: The government instituted its first piece of legislation pertaining to children with disabilities, the Rehabilitation Council of India Act. The impact of this act was limited to mandating minimum educational standards for special education teachers. . ((Vakil, S., Welton. E., Khanna, R. (2002). Special education in India: The success of a model program. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, no.5, 46-49.)) |
| - | * 1995-1998: The most groundbreaking piece of legislation for students with disabilities was initiated in 1995 and took three more years to be put into law. This legislation, The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights, and Full Participation) Act, states every child under the age of 18 must have access to a free education and specifies that certain funds must be set aside to that end. ((Vakil, Welton, Khanna)) | + | * 1995-1998: The most groundbreaking piece of legislation for students with disabilities was initiated in 1995 and took three more years to be put into law. This legislation, The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights, and Full Participation) Act, states every child under the age of 18 must have access to a free education and specifies that certain funds must be set aside to that end. ((Vakil, S., Welton. E., Khanna, R. (2002). Special education in India: The success of a model program. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, no.5, 46-49.)) |
| * 1999: National Trust (for the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities) Act, for the welfare of specified groups. | * 1999: National Trust (for the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities) Act, for the welfare of specified groups. | ||
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| * 2002: Biwako Millennium Framework Towards an Inclusive, Barrier-Free and Rights-Based Society for Persons With Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) encourages increased attention to critically underserved populations such as females and persons with disabilities. | * 2002: Biwako Millennium Framework Towards an Inclusive, Barrier-Free and Rights-Based Society for Persons With Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific (United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) encourages increased attention to critically underserved populations such as females and persons with disabilities. | ||
| - | * 2002-2003: Education For All (EFA) (Asian Development Bank), called Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in India. This program “includes universal primary education; universal elementary education; and vocational or nonformal education, adult education (women’s literacy), and education for disadvantaged children, children with disabilities, and ethnic minorities (Rao et al., 2005). ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * 2002-2003: Education For All (EFA) (Asian Development Bank), called Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in India. This program “includes universal primary education; universal elementary education; and vocational or nonformal education, adult education (women’s literacy), and education for disadvantaged children, children with disabilities, and ethnic minorities (Rao et al., 2005). ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| - | * 2010: Specified deadline for the achievement of EFA/SSA (Education For All / Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan) ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * 2010: Specified deadline for the achievement of EFA/SSA (Education For All / Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan) ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| * The goals set up by the 1987 Integrated Education for Disabled project are still being targeted by EFA/SSA—evidence of difficulties with instituting change in the educational system. Teachers and families of children with disability have limited knowledge of the policies intended to affect them. | * The goals set up by the 1987 Integrated Education for Disabled project are still being targeted by EFA/SSA—evidence of difficulties with instituting change in the educational system. Teachers and families of children with disability have limited knowledge of the policies intended to affect them. | ||
| - | * Kalyanpur (2008) reports that a lack of accountability and “inadequate policy dissemination” limit the impact of the government’s good intentions. ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * Kalyanpur (2008) reports that a lack of accountability and “inadequate policy dissemination” limit the impact of the government’s good intentions. ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
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| + | * //**Implications:** Families may not perceive the state as a helpful provider of services since many of the services provided to children with special needs in India are obtained from private organizations or volunteer agencies.// | ||
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| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | |||
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| - | * Implications: Families may not perceive the state as a helpful provider of services since many of the services provided to children with special needs in India are obtained from private organizations or volunteer agencies. | ||
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| ** Where are Services Available?:**\\ | ** Where are Services Available?:**\\ | ||
| - | * Services are most widely available in urban areas. Special education and rehabilitation services are available in less than 15% of rural areas. Early intervention services are most scarce. ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * Services are most widely available in urban areas. Special education and rehabilitation services are available in less than 15% of rural areas. Early intervention services are most scarce. ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| ** To Whom are Services Available?**\\ | ** To Whom are Services Available?**\\ | ||
| - | * Services are more available to the wealthy. General education in India is characterized as multi-tiered, with many private schools and monthly fees even for some government-run schools. Acceptance into schools can be competitive. Even schools that are inclusive may deny a student with a disability on the basis that the school is not equipt to provide services. | + | * Services are more available to the wealthy. General education in India is characterized as multi-tiered, with many private schools and monthly fees even for some government-run schools. Acceptance into schools can be competitive. Even schools that are inclusive may deny a student with a disability on the basis that the school is not equipped to provide services. |
| - | * Categories of disability covered by the Education For All / Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (EFA/SFA) program are blindness and low vision, hearing impairment, locomotor disability, leprosy that has been cured, cerebral pasly, mental illness, and mental retardation. ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * Categories of disability covered by the Education For All / Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (EFA/SFA) program are blindness and low vision, hearing impairment, locomotor disability, leprosy that has been cured, cerebral palsy, mental illness, and mental retardation. ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| - | * However, not all classes of disability are served equally. Kalyanpur reports findings of The National Sample Survey Organization (2003): persons with mental retardation are least likely to have received an education, are 4 times less likely to go to school than children with physical impairments [and] constitute the lowest proportion of employed adults.” (p.56, 2008) ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * However, not all classes of disability are served equally. Kalyanpur reports findings of The National Sample Survey Organization (2003): Persons with mental retardation are least likely to have received an education, are 4 times less likely to go to school than children with physical impairments [and] constitute the lowest proportion of employed adults.” (p.56, 2008) ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| - | * Although the recent EFA/SSA changes mandate a zero-rejection policy, there is little accountability. Especially in rural areas, parents are often unaware of their rights to have services provided to their child. ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * Although the recent EFA/SSA changes mandate a zero-rejection policy, there is little accountability. Especially in rural areas, parents are often unaware of their rights to have services provided to their child. ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| - | * The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2002) identified girls with disabilities as “one of the most marginalized groups in society.” ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2002) identified girls with disabilities as “one of the most marginalized groups in society.” ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| - | * Girls account for only 37% of total enrollment in schools. ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * Girls account for only 37% of total enrollment in schools. ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| - | * Nearly 68% of girls with disabilities are not enrolled in schools. ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * Nearly 68% of girls with disabilities are not enrolled in schools. ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| - | * Girls who are in school often drop out around puberty, for fear of their safety in traveling to and from school, or because they are needed to help support the household. ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * Girls who are in school often drop out around puberty, for fear of their safety in traveling to and from school, or because they are needed to help support the household. ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| - | * Girls who are disabled may be kept away from employment opportunities where coworkers are male, for fear of the girls’ safety. ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * Girls who are disabled may be kept away from employment opportunities where coworkers are male, for fear of the girls’ safety. ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| - | * Implication: Parents may be unaware of the rights their child has to be educated and receive appropriate intervention. | + | * //**Implication**: Parents may be unaware of the rights their child has to be educated and receive appropriate intervention//. |
| ** How are Students Identified?:**\\ | ** How are Students Identified?:**\\ | ||
| - | * There is generally no in-house screening at schools. The most attentive and well-trained school principals must refer students to counselors for screening. Screening is generally rare at the primary-school level. ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * There is generally no in-house screening at schools. The most attentive and well-trained school principals must refer students to counselors for screening. Screening is generally rare at the primary-school level. ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| - | * The government runs screening clinics, but they are overburdened and insufficient to meet demands. ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * The government runs screening clinics, but they are overburdened and insufficient to meet demands. ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| - | * Generally, report Thirumuthy & Jayaraman, “schools only identify special needs children either when there is recurring failure or if the principals are aware of the importance of early identification” (p. 382) ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * Generally, report Thirumuthy & Jayaraman, “schools only identify special needs children either when there is recurring failure or if the principals are aware of the importance of early identification” (p. 382) ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| + | |||
| + | * Many assessment tools are in English, adapted from Western countries ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) | ||
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| + | * Parents may be unlikely to call educators’ attention to their child’s special needs upon admission to a school, for fear that they may not be admitted into the school. Alternately, parents may take their children to a government-accredited center to be diagnosed with a learning disability. This diagnoses may exempt the child from having to learn in a second language, thereby—so the parents hope—improving their overall academic performance. ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) | ||
| + | |||
| + | * //**Implications:** Parents expectations of the educational system may be heavily influenced by their economic status. In India, greater wealth means greater access to educational opportunities for children with special needs. Because of experiences in a competitive educational system, parents may be reluctant to discuss any concerns they have about their child’s development for fear that they will be excluded for their disability.// | ||
| - | * Many assessment tools are in English, adapted from Western countries ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | ||
| - | * Parents may be unlikely to call educators’ attention to their child’s special needs upon admission to a school, for fear that they may not be admitted into the school. ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)). Alternately, parents may take their children to a government-accredited center to be diagnosed with a learning disability. This diagnoses may exempt the child from having to learn in a second language, thereby—so the parents hope—improving their overall academic performance. ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | ||
| - | * Implication: Parents expectations of the educational system may be heavily influenced by their economic status. In India, greater wealth means greater access to educational opportunities for children with special needs. Because of experiences in a competitive educational system, parents may be reluctant to discuss any concerns they have about their child’s development for fear that they will be excluded for their disability. | ||
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| ** Who Provides Services? How are they prepared?:**\\ | ** Who Provides Services? How are they prepared?:**\\ | ||
| - | * Mainstream educators often lack special training in disabilities ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * Mainstream educators often lack special training in disabilities ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| - | * Rawat (2004) reports concerns that uncertified teachers will open up schools “anywhere—in a temple, at home, or under a tree [so that] the government can accumulate statistics that show that all children, including the girl child are in school. This is a misdirected shortcut [to meeting the standards of EFA/SSA]” (p.1) (As reported in Kalyanpur, pg. 62) ((Kalyanpur)) | + | * Rawat (2004) reports concerns that uncertified teachers will open up schools “anywhere—in a temple, at home, or under a tree [so that] the government can accumulate statistics that show that all children, including the girl child are in school. This is a misdirected shortcut [to meeting the standards of EFA/SSA]” (p.1) (As reported in Kalyanpur, pg. 62) ((Kalyanpur, M. (2008). The paradox of majority underrepresentation in special education in India: Constructions of difference in a developing country. The Journal of Special Education, 42, no.1, 55-63.)) |
| ** Level of Integration with Mainstream Classrooms:**\\ | ** Level of Integration with Mainstream Classrooms:**\\ | ||
| - | * Special education generally occurs in special schools, funded by private sources and run separately from government schools teaching the national curriculum, provide the majority of education for children with special needs. ((Vakil, Welton, Khanna)) | + | * Special education generally occurs in special schools, funded by private sources and run separately from government schools teaching the national curriculum, provide the majority of education for children with special needs. ((Vakil, S., Welton. E., Khanna, R. (2002). Special education in India: The success of a model program. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34, no.5, 46-49.)) |
| ** Parent Involvement:**\\ | ** Parent Involvement:**\\ | ||
| - | * Parents are expected to seek out the best school and services for their child to ensure success. ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * Parents are expected to seek out the best school and services for their child to ensure success. ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
| - | * When a child has a disability, parents with financial resources may be expected to bring service providers into the school at their own cost. ((Thirumurthy & Jayaraman)) | + | * When a child has a disability, parents with financial resources may be expected to bring service providers into the school at their own cost. ((Thirumurthy, V., & Jayaraman, B. (2007). Special education in India at the crossroads. Childhood Education, 83, no.6, 380-384.)) |
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| ====== Special Education in MEXICO ====== | ====== Special Education in MEXICO ====== | ||
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| ** Prevalence and distribution of disability (geographic / socioeconomic /etiological):**\\ | ** Prevalence and distribution of disability (geographic / socioeconomic /etiological):**\\ | ||
| - | * The WHO estimates that 10% of [[Mexico]]’s school-age population has some type of disability. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * The WHO estimates that 10% of [[Mexico]]’s school-age population has some type of disability. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| - | * Around 320,000 students are being served by special education efforts, much less than the 10% predicted to need services. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * Around 320,000 students are being served by special education efforts, much less than the 10% predicted to need services. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| ** Special Education History and Policy Timeline:**\\ | ** Special Education History and Policy Timeline:**\\ | ||
| - | * In 1993, the General Education Law marked the first federal mandate requiring the state to address the needs of special education students. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) The law recognized that children with disabilities have the right to receive public education through the eighth grade. ((Tuman, J., Roth-johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) | + | * In 1993, the General Education Law marked the first federal mandate requiring the state to address the needs of special education students. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) The law recognized that children with disabilities have the right to receive public education through the eighth grade. ((Tuman, J., Roth-Johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in Mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) |
| - | * Special education teachers shifted from working in alternative classrooms and facilities to working to assist regular classroom teachers. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * Special education teachers shifted from working in alternative classrooms and facilities to working to assist regular classroom teachers. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| - | * Current ideals in special education have expanded to include factors such as the school, home, and community environments as well as teaching methods that may affect a child’s progress. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * Current ideals in special education have expanded to include factors such as the school, home, and community environments as well as teaching methods that may affect a child’s progress. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
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| ** Where are Services Available?:**\\ | ** Where are Services Available?:**\\ | ||
| - | * Regular Education Support Services Units (Unidades de Servicios de Apoyo a la Educacion Regular or USAER) serve 320,000 students who are mainstreamed in the general education classroom. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * Regular Education Support Services Units (Unidades de Servicios de Apoyo a la Educacion Regular or USAER) serve 320,000 students who are mainstreamed in the general education classroom. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| - | * Multiple Attention Centers (Centros de Atencion Multiple or CAM) serve over 100,000 students in special alternative schools. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * Multiple Attention Centers (Centros de Atencion Multiple or CAM) serve over 100,000 students in special alternative schools. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| - | * There are virtually no special education services available in Mexico’s secondary schools. CAMs attempt to fill the gap in services for high school students with special needs. ((Tuman, J., Roth-johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) | + | * There are virtually no special education services available in Mexico’s secondary schools. CAMs attempt to fill the gap in services for high school students with special needs. ((Tuman, J., Roth-Johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in Mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) |
| - | * The majority of special education services are in urban and densely populated areas. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * The majority of special education services are in urban and densely populated areas. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| ** To Whom are Services Available?**\\ | ** To Whom are Services Available?**\\ | ||
| - | * Special education students are divided into the following categories ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * Special education students are divided into the following categories ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| -Auditory handicap\\ | -Auditory handicap\\ | ||
| -Intellectual handicap\\ | -Intellectual handicap\\ | ||
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| -Visual handicap\\ | -Visual handicap\\ | ||
| -Other | -Other | ||
| - | * No category exists for learning or reading disability at this time, which shows the general lack of awareness of these disorders in Mexico’s special education services. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * No category exists for learning or reading disability at this time, which shows the general lack of awareness of these disorders in Mexico’s special education services. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| - | * Students may receive services for special learning needs even if they are not assigned a disability category. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * Students may receive services for special learning needs even if they are not assigned a disability category. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| ** How are Students Identified?:**\\ | ** How are Students Identified?:**\\ | ||
| - | * After a child is noticed for having difficulty in the classroom, a team analyzes the nature of the child’s disability by looking at the child’s performance on curricular assessments, observation, and interviews with teachers and caregivers. The child’s performance is compared to the typical performance of the child’s peer group. ((Tuman, J., Roth-johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) | + | * After a child is noticed for having difficulty in the classroom, a team analyzes the nature of the child’s disability by looking at the child’s performance on curricular assessments, observation, and interviews with teachers and caregivers. The child’s performance is compared to the typical performance of the child’s peer group. ((Tuman, J., Roth-Johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in Mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) |
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| - Regular Education Support Services Unit (USAER) | - Regular Education Support Services Unit (USAER) | ||
| *This team of people includes a social worker, psychologist, speech-language pathologist, and special education teacher. The team serves four to five schools, visiting each school one day a week. | *This team of people includes a social worker, psychologist, speech-language pathologist, and special education teacher. The team serves four to five schools, visiting each school one day a week. | ||
| - | *The special education teacher works directly with the classroom teacher to help build successful learning opportunities for the special needs child in the classroom. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | *The special education teacher works directly with the classroom teacher to help build successful learning opportunities for the special needs child in the classroom. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| - Multiple Attention Centers (CAM) | - Multiple Attention Centers (CAM) | ||
| *CAMs are special schools alternative to regular education classrooms designed to provide education for preschool through high school students who are unable to integrate successfully into typical classrooms. | *CAMs are special schools alternative to regular education classrooms designed to provide education for preschool through high school students who are unable to integrate successfully into typical classrooms. | ||
| - | *Each center maintains independence in organizing, planning and instructing students. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | *Each center maintains independence in organizing, planning and instructing students. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| - | * Private educational associations focus on treating children with ADHD. Teachers generally do not have training for how to work with these students in the classroom. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * Private educational associations focus on treating children with ADHD. Teachers generally do not have training for how to work with these students in the classroom. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| ** How are they prepared?:**\\ | ** How are they prepared?:**\\ | ||
| - | * Training courses for special education teachers have a limited scope. Areas covered include vision, hearing, language, and intellectual disability but leave out specific learning disabilities. ((Tuman, J., Roth-johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) | + | * Training courses for special education teachers have a limited scope. Areas covered include vision, hearing, language, and intellectual disability but leave out specific learning disabilities. ((Tuman, J., Roth-Johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in Mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) |
| - | * After the movement of inclusion began, teachers lacked training of roles and responsibilities in the new structure. Administrators attempted a trickle down method for educating its classroom teachers. Administrators trained a core group of teachers at the district level who trained more teachers at the local level. Information did not reach teachers and resulted in poor collaboration with special educators. ((Tuman, J., Roth-johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) | + | * After the movement of inclusion began, teachers lacked training of roles and responsibilities in the new structure. Administrators attempted a trickle down method for educating its classroom teachers. Administrators trained a core group of teachers at the district level who trained more teachers at the local level. Information did not reach teachers and resulted in poor collaboration with special educators. ((Tuman, J., Roth-Johnson, D., Baker, D., & Vecchio, J. (2008). Autism and special education in Mexico. Global Health Governance, 2, 1, 1-22.)) |
| ** Level of Integration with Mainstream Classrooms:**\\ | ** Level of Integration with Mainstream Classrooms:**\\ | ||
| - | * Attempting integration is essential. However, if it fails a given child, the child has a right to be in an alternative setting. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Specil Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) | + | * Attempting integration is essential. However, if it fails a given child, the child has a right to be in an alternative setting. ((Mount-cors, M. (2007). Special Education in Mexico. Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Learn NC: http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/1911.)) |
| ** Parent Involvement:**\\ | ** Parent Involvement:**\\ | ||
| * As of 2004, the public school system had no program in place to offer counseling or include families in the education of children with disabilities. A working group has been formed to promote family education and integration for which ideas are to be presented to The National Special Education and Educational Integration Strengthening Program. ((International Disability Rights Monitor (IDRM) Publications. (2004). Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Center for International Rehabilitation, IDEAnet: http://www.ideanet.org/content.cfm?id=5b5c75.)) | * As of 2004, the public school system had no program in place to offer counseling or include families in the education of children with disabilities. A working group has been formed to promote family education and integration for which ideas are to be presented to The National Special Education and Educational Integration Strengthening Program. ((International Disability Rights Monitor (IDRM) Publications. (2004). Retrieved March 03, 2010 from Center for International Rehabilitation, IDEAnet: http://www.ideanet.org/content.cfm?id=5b5c75.)) | ||
| + | * //**Implication:** Families may be unaware that they have a right, and, indeed, are expected to be involved in decisions about their children's intervention// | ||
| For specific information on autism spectrum disorders in Mexico, [[autism_spectrum_disorders_and_culture|click here.]] | For specific information on autism spectrum disorders in Mexico, [[autism_spectrum_disorders_and_culture|click here.]] | ||
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| ====== Special Education in RUSSIA ====== | ====== Special Education in RUSSIA ====== | ||
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| ** Prevalence and distribution of disability (geographic / socioeconomic /etiological):**\\ | ** Prevalence and distribution of disability (geographic / socioeconomic /etiological):**\\ | ||
| - | * 8.7% of school age children in [[Russian|Russia]] are estimated to have disabilities | + | * 8.7% of school age children in [[Russian|Russia]] are estimated to have disabilities ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) |
| ** Attitudes towards disability:**\\ | ** Attitudes towards disability:**\\ | ||
| - | * Influential Russian educational psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) believed that disabilities in children resulted from a combination of biological and social factors. He attributed greatest causation to social factors, stating that in the right environment there was “a chance for the deficient child to upgrade to the normal type, to acquire a full social value.” (as quoted in Korkunov et al, 1994) ((Korkunov et al)) | + | * Influential Russian educational psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) believed that disabilities in children resulted from a combination of biological and social factors. He attributed greatest causation to social factors, stating that in the right environment there was “a chance for the deficient child to upgrade to the normal type, to acquire a full social value.” (as quoted in Korkunov et al, 1994) ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) |
| - | * Historically, “the focus of Russian defectology [--study of persons with disabilities--] was on social remediation and rehabilitation . . . to correct the child’s social ‘handicaps’ and teach him or her how to participate in the social life of the community” (p.92) ((Angran & Boykov)) | + | * Historically, “the focus of Russian defectology [--study of persons with disabilities--] was on social remediation and rehabilitation . . . to correct the child’s social ‘handicaps’ and teach him or her how to participate in the social life of the community” (p.92) ((Agran, M., Boykov, D. (2003). A preliminary survey of professional and student opinion of special education practice in contemporary Russia. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28, no.2, 91-100.)) |
| - | * Because disabled people were physically removed from mainstream society, it has been suggested (by Grigorenko 1998) that they were more invisible than stigmatized. ((Angran & Boykov)) | + | * Because disabled people were physically removed from mainstream society, it has been suggested (by Grigorenko 1998) that they were more invisible than stigmatized. ((Agran, M., Boykov, D. (2003). A preliminary survey of professional and student opinion of special education practice in contemporary Russia. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28, no.2, 91-100.)) |
| ** General Education:**\\ | ** General Education:**\\ | ||
| - | * Standards are set at a national level, with room for regional adjustments ((Judge & Oreshkina)) | + | * Standards are set at a national level, with room for regional adjustments ((Judge, S., & Oreshkina, M. (2004). Special education teacher preparation in Belgium, Russia, and United States: A comparative study. Teacher Education and Special Education, 27, no.3, 35-45.)) |
| ** Special Education History and Policy Timeline:**\\ | ** Special Education History and Policy Timeline:**\\ | ||
| - | * 1806-1807: A school for the deaf and a school for the blind are established. | + | * 1806-1807: A school for the deaf and a school for the blind are established. ((Malofeev, N. (1998) Special education in Russia: Historical aspects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 181-185.)) |
| - | * 1854: Medical Pedagogical institute for people with mental retardation is created. ((Angran & Boykov)) | + | * 1854: Medical Pedagogical institute for people with mental retardation is created. ((Agran, M., Boykov, D. (2003). A preliminary survey of professional and student opinion of special education practice in contemporary Russia. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28, no.2, 91-100.)) |
| - | * 1900: A kindergarten for disabled children is founded. ((Angran & Boykov)) | + | * 1900: A kindergarten for disabled children is founded. ((Agran, M., Boykov, D. (2003). A preliminary survey of professional and student opinion of special education practice in contemporary Russia. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 28, no.2, 91-100.)) |
| - | * 1917: Russian Revolution; first formal special education system is initiated. ((Korkunov et al)) | + | * 1917: Russian Revolution; first formal special education system is initiated. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) |
| - | * Special education, or “defectology” practices were emmeshed with the “Soviet ideaology and vision of a flawless communist society” ((Korkunov et al)) | + | * Special education, or “defectology” practices were enmeshed with the “Soviet ideology and vision of a flawless communist society” ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) |
| - | * Children identified as disabled were all removed from their homes and sequestered in large institutions. Parents had no say in the matter; all care for the child at the institution is funded by the state. | + | * Children identified as disabled were all removed from their homes and sequestered in large institutions. Parents had no say in the matter; all care for the child at the institution is funded by the state. |
| - | * No attempts were made to integrate children with disabilities into mainstream classrooms. Children either met uniform intellectual requirements or were identified as defective. ((Korkunov et al)) | + | * No attempts were made to integrate children with disabilities into mainstream classrooms. Children either met uniform intellectual requirements or were identified as defective. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) |
| + | |||
| + | * 1931: Government-funded educational services are mandated for students with disabilities. This is forty years prior to similar legislation in the United States. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) | ||
| + | |||
| + | * 1991: Collapse of the Soviet union and the communist system. Democratic values begin to be integrated into special education policy and procedures ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) | ||
| + | * Parents must consent to evaluation and placement of their children. | ||
| + | * Assessment of children must take place in the children’s native language. | ||
| + | * Family’s social-cultural level must be considered in selection of tests and tasks | ||
| + | * Parents may apply for a second consultation if they have concerns about qualifications of the staff who assess their child. | ||
| + | * //**Implication:** Parents may be surprised to learn that their disabled child can receive services at the same institution as typical children.// | ||
| - | * 1931: Government-funded educational services are mandated for students with disabilities. This is forty years prior to similar legislation in the Unite States. ((Korkunov et al)) | ||
| - | * 1991: collapse of the Soviet union and the communist system ((Korkunov et al)). Democratic values begin to be integrated into special education policy and procedures ((Korkunov et al)) | ||
| - | * * Parents must consent to evaluation and placement of their children. | ||
| - | * * Assessment of children must take place in the children’s native language. | ||
| - | * * Family’s social-cultural level must be considered in selection of tests and tasks | ||
| - | * * Parents may apply for a second consultation if they have concerns about qualifications of the staff who assess their child. | ||
| ===== Availability & Eligibility ===== | ===== Availability & Eligibility ===== | ||
| Line 329: | Line 386: | ||
| ** How are Students Identified?:**\\ | ** How are Students Identified?:**\\ | ||
| - | * Multidisciplinary psychological-medical-pedagogical consutants (PMPC's) carry out assessments of special needs children. PMPC's serve specified regions, with an average of 10 thousand special needs children for each PMPC to place in each region. | + | * Multidisciplinary psychological-medical-pedagogical consutants (PMPC's) carry out assessments of special needs children. PMPC's serve specified regions, with an average of 10 thousand special needs children for each PMPC to place in each region. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) |
| - | * Newer diagnostic centers may employ a multidisciplinary staff, including a pediatrician, a neuropathologist, a psychoneurologist, a psychologist, a speech therapist, a pedagogue, and a special pedagogue. | + | * Newer diagnostic centers may employ a multidisciplinary staff, including a pediatrician, a neuropathologist, a psychoneurologist, a psychologist, a speech therapist, a pedagogue, and a special pedagogue. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) |
| + | |||
| + | * Parental consent now must be obtained for assessment and placement of children. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) | ||
| + | |||
| + | * As of 1994, categories of recognized disability included the following: psychological developmental delay, defects of speech, hearing, sight, mental function, motor ability, and other anomalies. No categories of specific learning disabilities or behavior disorders were recognized as of 1994. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| - | * Parental consent now must be obtained for assessment and placement of children. | ||
| - | * As of 1994, categories of recognized disability included the following: psychological developmental delay, defects of speech, hearing, sight, mental function, motor ability, and other anomalies. No categories of specific learning disabilities or behavior disorders were recognized as of 1994. | ||
| Line 345: | Line 408: | ||
| ** Who Provides Services? How are they prepared?:**\\ | ** Who Provides Services? How are they prepared?:**\\ | ||
| - | * Prospective teachers attend 4 years of schooling at a government-accredited pedagogical institutions, followed by one year of field work. Facilities offer specializations in certain areas of disability (e.g. mental retardation, speech and language therapy). About 40 universities in Russia offer this degree. ((Judge & Oreshkina)) | + | * Prospective teachers attend 4 years of schooling at government-accredited pedagogical institutions, followed by one year of field work. Facilities offer specializations in certain areas of disability (e.g. mental retardation, speech and language therapy). About 40 universities in Russia offer this degree. ((Judge, S., & Oreshkina, M. (2004). Special education teacher preparation in Belgium, Russia, and United States: A comparative study. Teacher Education and Special Education, 27, no.3, 35-45.)) |
| - | * However, one researcher in reported that in 1994 only about 9% of teachers in special schools had received specialize training | + | * However, one researcher reported that in 1994, only about 9% of teachers in special schools had received specialized training |
| ** Level of Integration with Mainstream Classrooms:**\\ | ** Level of Integration with Mainstream Classrooms:**\\ | ||
| - | * The old model, which places students with disabilities in separate schools, is still largely in place. ((Korkunov et al)) | + | * The old model, which places students with disabilities in separate schools, is still largely in place. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) |
| - | * A more humanistic, child-centered approach is gaining acceptance, with a few schools educating students with mild disabilities in the mainstream school, with some opportunities to participate with typical students. ((Korkunov et al)) | + | * A more humanistic, child-centered approach is gaining acceptance, with a few schools educating students with mild disabilities in the mainstream school, with some opportunities to participate with typical students. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) |
| ** Parent Involvement:**\\ | ** Parent Involvement:**\\ | ||
| * Parents must consent to assessment and placement of their child. | * Parents must consent to assessment and placement of their child. | ||
| * Children may receive services at boarding schools that are far-removed from parents and family. This has been the case historically, but may be changing in the years to come. | * Children may receive services at boarding schools that are far-removed from parents and family. This has been the case historically, but may be changing in the years to come. | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| Line 362: | Line 428: | ||
| ===== Future Directions ===== | ===== Future Directions ===== | ||
| - | The Russian Ministry of education is working to decentralize educational curriculums and to institute a more democratic, child-centered system. ((Korkunov et al)) Some mainstream schools have begun to develop programs for mildly disabled children, which may be perceived as evidence that Russia is moving towards a more integrated, less segregated model of service delivery for people with special needs. | + | The Russian Ministry of education is working to decentralize educational curriculums and to institute a more democratic, child-centered system. ((Korkunov, V., Nigayev, A., Reynolds, L., Lerner, J. (1998). Special education in Russia: History, reality, and prospects. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, no.2, 186-192.)) Some mainstream schools have begun to develop programs for mildly disabled children, which may be perceived as evidence that Russia is moving towards a more integrated, less segregated model of service delivery for people with special needs. |
| ---- | ---- | ||
| Line 370: | Line 436: | ||
| ====== References ====== | ====== References ====== | ||
| - | ~~DISCUSSION:on~~ | + | ~~DISCUSSION:off~~ |